Research

Research

Abstract

Human trafficking has become a major social problem in Jimma Zone, Ethiopia. Despite this, information available on factors, consequences, the process, and people’s awareness of human trafficking is scanty. To address this, a cross-sectional survey involving 382 randomly selected respondents was conducted in four woredas of Jimma Zone between June and July 2013.
The results show that deception and inducing people to migrate to the Middle East are widely practiced by brokers in the region. Thus, 46 (12 %) of the respondents reported that they themselves had been victims of human trafficking and returned recently. Most of the victims have lost their money, suffered from long distance travel, various forms of abuse, labor exploitation, exposure to disease, lack of water and food. Only two of them mentioned that they have come back with some money and started a small business. Unemployment, population growth, poverty, pressures of families, relatives and friends, manipulation by brokers, success history of some returnees, long process and high cost required to migrate legally are the major factors leading to human trafficking and illegal migration. In spite of this, 155 (40.6%) of the respondents would still like to migrate because they were disappointed with their existing situation.

1. Introduction

According to the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, human trafficking is the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or the receipt of persons by means of threat or use of force or other form of coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or the giving or receiving of payment or benefit to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation includes, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery, or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs. The consent of a victim of trafficking in persons to the intended exploitation set forth shall be irrelevant where any of the means set forth have been used (UN 2000).
Human trafficking is a complex process that involves many people from local to international level. It is undertaken within the country or internationally clandestinely.
Some people confuse the difference between human trafficking and human smuggling. Human trafficking is different from human smuggling. Human smuggling is the facilitation, transportation, attempted transportation, or illegal entry of a person across an international border, in violation of one or more countries’ laws, either clandestinely or through deception, such as the use of fraudulent documents (Iselin 2003). Unlike smuggling, which is illegal commercial transaction between two willing parties who go their separate ways once their business is complete, trafficking specifically targets the trafficked person as an object of criminal exploitation. From the beginning, the purpose of human trafficking is to get profit from the exploitation of the victim (DOS 2006, cited in Willson and Dalton 2007).
The term human trafficking was first used in the mid 20th Century in phrases such as “white slave traffic” and “the trafficking in women and children” to refer to forcing women and children into prostitution, but in recent years the scourge of trafficking, or what many people call modern-day slavery, has exponentially increased due to globalization, the magnitude of poverty, organized crime, government corruption and the growth of the global commercial sex industry (Cullen-DuPont 2009).
The historical root of human trafficking can be traced back to the history of slavery and the slave trade (Iselin 2003). However, it has received a special attention since the beginning of the twentieth century. While slavery and the slave trade were commonly associated with transporting African slaves to Europe and North America, trafficking was initially understood to take place for prostitution and sexual exploitation of white women and girls within Europe (Onuoha 2011).
In the 1980s new thinking on migration, the feminist movement, the spread of AIDS, child prostitution, and sex tourism forced the world community to pay more attention to human trafficking. Human trafficking is a growing criminal activity throughout the world. Men, women, and children have become victims of trafficking. Almost every country in the world has become affected by trafficking for sexual exploitation, forced labor and other forms of exploitation. However, there is no broad agreement regarding the methodology that should be used to calculate its exact magnitude. Different countries and different non-governmental organizations provide contradictory reports. The US State Department, International Labor Organization (ILO), International Organization of Migration (IOM) and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) have databases on human trafficking. Of these organizations, the United States Government and the ILO estimate the global number of victims, while IOM collects data on assisted victims and UNODC traces the major international trafficking routes of the victims.
Most of them agree that trafficking of human beings has become a widespread practice in the modern world. It has been estimated that between 600,000 and 800,000 people, mainly women and children are trafficked worldwide each year (US Department of State, 2005). According to the ILO, the number of people who became victims of human trafficking in 2005 was estimated to be 2.5 million. Of this number, 1.4 million were in Asia and the Pacific, 270,000 in industrialized countries, 250,000 in Latin America and the Caribbean, 230,000 in the Middle East and Northern Africa, 200,000 in countries with economies in transition and 130,000 in sub-Saharan countries (ILO 2005). Likewise, a report by the US Department of State in 2007 revealed that excluding the millions trafficked within their own countries, approximately 800,000 people were trafficked across national borders annually. The UNODC (2012) report also indicated that at least 136 different nationalities were trafficked and found in 118 different countries between 2007 and 2010.
Human trafficking takes place for various exploitative purposes. According to UNODC report (2012), 79% of the trafficked women were for sexual exploitation and 18% of them were for forced labor. Women and girls are mainly trafficked for sexual exploitation. Throughout the world, 20% of the victims of trafficking are children. In Africa, however, children constitute the majority of the victims of human trafficking (UNODC 2009). IOM data on the other hand showed that 53% of the victims were trafficked for forced labor, 27% for sexual exploitation, 7% for other purposes such as forced marriage and organ trafficking, 5% for begging, 5% for combined sexual and forced labor, 3% for unknown purpose and 0.1% for forced labor and low-level criminal activities (IOM 2012).
There is consensus among the world community that human trafficking is a crime against humanity. It exposes people to various exploitations and threatens human beings’ survival. However; it continues to be the major challenge of the world community (UN 2000). The rapid increase in human trafficking and its transnational nature have forced the international community to take immediate measure. Hence, the United Nations adopted the Protocol to prevent, suppress and punish trafficking in persons, especially women and children. Despite increasing global attention and significant national responses, human trafficking is, today, a very tragic reality. Even though the majority of member States have ratified the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, and other international instruments, human trafficking still remains a crime with low risks and high profit (UNODC 2008).
However, such an estimate is unavailable in Ethiopia; the media and some fragmented reports showed that human trafficking and smuggling are widespread in the country. For instance, during the Spring of 2006, the Puntland authorities reported that each day between 200 to 300 Ethiopians were arriving in the town of Bossaso to attempt to sea voyage to Yemen and then to the Gulf states, Europe and other countries (UNODC 2006). The ILO report (2011) also indicated that there was a high prevalence of human trafficking in Ethiopia, especially, in Addis Ababa, the capital city of the country, and other towns such as Adama, Dire Dawa, Shashamanne, Jimma and Dessie. Likewise, the International Labor Organization (2011) reported that the trafficking of Ethiopians for labor exploitation as domestic workers is highly prevalent in Ethiopia. The research indicated that the practice has increased recently and the youths are deceived and sometimes coerced into migrating to the Middle East countries and the Sudan without adequate protection from abuse and exploitation.
The US Department of State (2012) trafficking in persons report indicated that of the 20,000 to 80,000 Ethiopians that applied to work overseas in 2011, about 60 to 70 percent of the labor migration is facilitated by illegal brokers that increase migrants’ vulnerability to human trafficking and smuggling. Ethiopia is a source country for men, women, and children who are subjected to forced labor and sex trafficking. (http://www.refworld.org/docid/4fe30ccb32.html ).
The constitution of Ethiopia allows the free movement of people from place to place and prohibits human trafficking. For instance, article 18 of the constitution states that “no one shall be required to perform a forced or compulsory labor (FDRE Constitution 1995). In Ethiopia, human trafficking for labor and sex results in punishment that ranges from five to twenty years. However, this couldn’t prevent human trafficking in the country. As it is one of the poorest countries of the world, Ethiopia has become a source country for human trafficking. Especially young women and men migrate voluntarily or involuntarily within and across the country in search of job opportunity and better life. Many Ethiopians are trafficked each year from different parts of the country to the Middle East, Sudan, South Africa, Egypt, and even to European countries (USAID 2009). Within the country, women and children are trafficked from rural areas to major cities for forced labor and sexual activity.
Although data is unavailable, Jimma Zone is one the Zones in Oromia National Regional State where human trafficking is more prevalent. Comments given at public meetings, and in police and media reports at different times suggest that the Zone is the first in the country in human trafficking. This needs further in-depth investigation into its factors, process and consequences toward which this study is aimed.

1.1 Statement of the Problem

It has become common to hear news about human trafficking and the suffering of the victims in Ethiopia. Various Media and concerned bodies also report that each day a number of people travel on foot across deserts to reach destination countries and many lives are lost on the way.
According to the US Department of State 2012 Report, a number of Ethiopians have become victims of human trafficking and exposed to various forms of exploitation. Ethiopian girls are forced into domestic servitude and prostitution outside of Ethiopia, primarily in Djibouti and South Sudan – particularly in Juba, Bor and Bentiu while Ethiopian boys are subjected to forced labor in Djibouti as shop assistants, errand boys, domestic workers, thieves, and street beggars. Young women, most with only primary education, are subjected to domestic servitude throughout the Middle East, as well as in Sudan and South Sudan. Many transit through Djibouti, Egypt, Somalia, Sudan, or Yemen as they emigrate seeking work. Some women become stranded and exploited in these transit countries, unable to reach their intended destinations. Many of the Ethiopian women working in domestic service in the Middle East face severe abuses, including physical and sexual assault, denial of salary, sleep deprivation, withholding of passports, confinement, and murder. Many are also driven to despair and experience psychological problems, with some committing suicide (http://www.refworld.org/docid/4fe30ccb32.html).
The International Organization of Migration report (2010) also indicated those Ethiopians that become victims of external trafficking to the Middle East face labor exploitation, physical and emotional abuse, as well as sexual abuse and exploitation. The most recurrent forms of abuse are overwork, confinement, denial of wages, emotional abuse, beatings, sexual harassment and rape. The recurrent perpetrators of abuse are employers, agents and the police. Death, physical disability, psychological and health problems as well as imprisonment are the prevalent documented effects of abuse and exploitation.
Despite these, many people have been preparing, deciding and moving from Ethiopia to the Gulf States, Saudi Arabia, Europe, Sudan and South Africa through traffickers/brokers. Jimma Zone has become one of the most known sources for human trafficking. Even relatives, neighbors, friends and families are facilitating the process by selling their precious properties to pay for the fees required for the brokers as heard from public discussions made at different times regarding the issue.
There must be pressing factors from the source communities that contribute to the spread of human trafficking. The previous reports and studies by various concerned bodies were based on interviews of a few victims, their families and concerned bodies. This study is intended to fill the gap based on survey and other qualitative methods with special emphasis on the four woredas in Jimma Zone, namely Omo Nada, Kersa, Dedo and Manna. This study is aimed at suggesting policy recommendations to alleviate the problem, based on grassroots-level empirical evidence.

1.3 Objectives

The main objectives of the study are:
• To identify the awareness of the source community about the existence of human trafficking;
• To investigate the process/mechanisms of human trafficking;
• To identify the socio-economic factors that make people to become vulnerable to human trafficking;
• To identify the consequences of human trafficking on victims
• To explore the perception of people about human trafficking and place of destination;
• To assess the attempts made by governmental and non-governmental organizations to overcome the problem of human trafficking;
• To offer policy recommendations on how to alleviate human trafficking.

1.4 Scope and Limitation of the Study

This study focused on international human trafficking that involves crossing boundaries of one or more nations.
As the study was conducted in only four woredas of Jimma zone, no generalization is made about the entire zone. Moreover, apart from the data collected from the community, the victims, their families and concerned informants, information has to be collected from the brokers/human traffickers.

2. Research Method and Design

2.1 Research Design

A cross-sectional study was conducted from June 2013 to July 2013 in the four selected woredas of Jimma zone. The researchers employed both qualitative and quantitative methods. Qualitative research method was used to collect information about the process of human trafficking and public opinions about the phenomenon. Quantitative data were collected to know the magnitude of the problem. Survey research and secondary materials were the main sources of the quantitative data. In addition, primary and secondary data were collected from respondents residing in four woredas of Jimma Zone. These are Kersa, Omo Nada, Dedo and Manna Woredas.
The sources of the data were elders, victims, police officers, experts, and families of victims. Questionnaires were employed to collect data from 382 sample respondents aged 15 years and above. In addition, Key Informant/in-depth interview were employed to collect data from victims, families of victims, police officers and elders using an interview guide. The interview guide and questionnaires were prepared in English and translated into the vernacular language of the community, i.e., Afaan Oromoo.

2.2 Description of the Study Area

Jimma zone is one of the 17 zones of Oromia Regional State and it is located in the South West of the Region and the country as well. The zone is predominantly inhabited by Muslims. Jimma zone is among the known coffee growing areas in the region and the country. The administrative seat of the zone is Jimma town which is 350 km away from Addis Ababa.
The zone has 18 administrative woredas. However, the limited resources and time forced us to focus on four woredas, i.e., Mana, Dedo, Kersa and Omo Nada based on prior information obtained from the zonal administrative office regarding the situation of human trafficking in the zone. These sites were known for their widespread human trafficking according. Victims of human trafficking (especially the returnees) were approached and their trafficking experiences were explored.

2.3 Sampling Technique and Sample Size

To assess the community’s awareness of human trafficking, a multi-stage sampling technique was applied. So, first, two kebeles were randomly selected from each woreda. Then two Gotes (the smallest administrative unit under the kebeles) were selected from each kebele. Hence, a total of 16 Gotes were randomly selected from the 8 kebeles. Finally, 384 households were randomly selected and persons above fifteen years from the households in the Gotes were sampled. The sample size was determined using the following formula:
n= Z2p (1-p)/d2
Where “n” is the sample size,
“Z” is a standard score corresponding to 95% confidence interval (1.96),
“p” estimate of Proportion, we took 50% since there is no previous data,
“d” is the margin of error of 5%
Thus, the required:
n = (1.96)2x.0.5 (1-.0.5)/0.052= 384.16

3. Findings

The survey planned to collect data from 384 randomly selected individuals. However, it was impossible to get two of the respondents and hence, the data was collected from 382 of them.

3.1 Public Awareness of Human Trafficking in the Study Areas

According to the information obtained from the Labor and Social Affairs Office of Jimma Zone, a number of people moved from each woreda to other countries through human trafficking and illegal migration in the past four years.

Table 1. Total number of people trafficked from the woredas
Woreda Total number of people trafficked, by year
2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13
Dedo - 403 976 48
Kersa - - 328 909
Omo Nada 52 115 80 92
Mana - 267 178 77
SOURCE: Document of Labor and Social Affairs Offices of the respective woredas

Although the data is incomplete, table 1 indicates that each year many people are trafficked abroad. The United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime (UNODC 2012:7) report also indicated that 44 victims of human trafficking were assisted in Ethiopia between 2007 and 2010. During data collection for this study too, victims of human trafficking returned to their home from Yemen and Saudi Arabia through the assistance of IOM and other organizations were interviewed in Omo Nada and Manna Woredas.

Table 2. Respondent’s awareness of the existence of human trafficking
Response Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid: Yes 377 98.7 98.7 98.7
No 5 1.3 1.3 100.0
Total 382 100.0 100.0
SOURCE: Own survey, 2013

As table 2 shows, data collected from 382 individuals from the four studied woredas of Jimma Zone revealed that 377 (98.7%) had information about human trafficking and that it was widely practiced. A number of people have been moved from the study area particularly to Arab countries through trafficking and illegal migration. Chains of brokers linked from the study area to the place of destination facilitate the process by accepting broking fees. The decision to move and transportation of many people are initiated and facilitated by brokers who have links with brokers at other countries.
The result of the survey reveals that human trafficking a major problem of the study sites. Interviews made with Women’s and Children’s Affairs offices, Labor and Social Affairs offices, the returnees from the Middle East and Sudan, and elders in the respective woredas show that human trafficking is widespread in the study areas.
According to the key informants, the family members particularly the youths always discuss how to go to the Middle East and enjoy the economic opportunities found there. Moreover, brokers manipulate the youths by making false promises that their lives will become better within a short period of time if they moved. Apart from this, hearing the success story of some individuals who were able to reach the destination countries and the living condition of people who have children abroad always make the youths to dream about how to reach Arab countries and enjoy the economic benefits there.

3.2 Mechanisms Used by Traffickers and the Process of Human Trafficking

Respondents claimed that the brokers used various strategies, lies, indirect pressure and facilitation. In the survey, respondents were asked whether they have already any experience migration in order to get detailed information. The following table depicts provides their response.

Table 3. Respondent’s experience of human trafficking
Response Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid: Yes 46 12.0 12.0 12.0
No 336 88.0 88.0 100.0
Total 382 100.0 100.0
SOURCE: Own survey, 2013

The results obtained show that 46 (12%) of the respondents had experienced human trafficking through brokers to migrate to Sudan, the Middle East and South Africa. However, the remaining 336 (88%) have no previous experience of migration. The majority of the people were moved by brokers crossing long deserts on foot via Humera to Sudan, Dire Dawa to Djibouti and then to Yemen and Saudi Arabia, as well as from Jijiga to Somaliland and from Borena to Kenya, Tanzania and then to South Africa.
The information obtained from case studies also showed this reality. A 22 year old male returnee from Saudi Arabia that currently lives in Omo Nada town stated: “I was moved by brokers from Omo Nada district through Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa, Djibouti, Yemen and finally reached Saudi Arabia after two months”. Another 18 year old female returnee from Sudan currently living in Yabu town of Manna woreda also revealed that she was deceived by the brokers to migrate: “I moved from Yebu via Addis Ababa, Bahir Dar, Humera and Galabat to reach Sudan in order to get employment.”
The processes of recruitment, harboring and transportation are very complex in the studied areas and the brokers undertake these secretly. Elders and victims stated that extreme care is taken by traffickers to avoid the possibility being arrested by the police. They use various techniques and strategies for this purpose. One of the techniques is integrating themselves with the community. Traffickers or brokers are hidden in the community and they live, eat and get married to the daughters and sons of the community. Thus, their activity cannot be easily detected. They also use various deceptions. Respondents were asked whether they know the various techniques used by the brokers.

Table 4. Respondents’ knowledge of the various mechanisms used by brokers/traffickers
Response Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid: Yes 298 78.0 78.0 78.0
No 84 22.0 22.0 100.0
Total 382 100.0 100.0
SOURCE: Own survey, 2013

The survey results show that 298 (78%) respondents know that traffickers use various strategies in the selection and transportation of victims. However, 22% (84) claimed that they knew of no strategy that traffickers use. Interviews made with various experts and officers of Women and Child Affairs, Labor and Social Affairs offices, returnees, elders and religious leaders revealed that the strategies they use are very complex and change over time.
The main strategies used are telling about good opportunities available abroad, telling success stories of some friends or individuals who went abroad and the socioeconomic and political problems they would face here to persuade people to migrate. The persuasion and discussion are conducted during chat chewing and at different social gatherings. Peers and same sex groups play a pivotal role in persuading the people. The discussion continues for long and repeated until the group or individuals from the group decide to migrate. The discussion involves the purpose for travel, how to travel, transfer money and the amount of money required to travel to different parts of the world.
Another widely used recruitment technique is false promises that potential migrants cannot refuse. These include helping them to reach places of destination and getting employment in a short period of time, helping them to change employers if they are not happy with the working condition, and facilitating their migration on credit basis. Since illegal brokers do not follow the official or legal procedures required for foreign employment, they can usually send migrants within a short period of time compared to the legal ones. However, the facilitation of the illegal migration/human trafficking on credit usually leads to debt bondage as migrants generally do not know how much is owed to the broker or what the payment modality is. A 20 year old female returnee from Sudan tells her experience as follows.

I did not have money when I decided to move to Sudan. The broker promised me that he would cover all of my travel and other expenses which I would repay him when I get employment. However, he indirectly negotiated with my potential employer that my salary should not be paid to me directly until I repaid the 6000 birr he claimed to have expended on me to facilitate my travel. Hence, I worked for six months without payment. The employer was directly paying my salary to the broker. It was after I paid back all my “debt” to the broker that I started to receive my salary from my employer.

As understood from the in-depth interviews with the returnees, in most cases, the victims are expected to pay money to the brokers or persons they locally call ‘hawalas’. The “hawalas” are persons that accept commission and act as money transfer agencies. They are shop owners situated in various cities, such as Jimma, Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa, Gonder and many other towns. They run small businesses and the facilitation of human trafficking side by side. Victims do not know by face who the “hawalas’ or money transferors are. They pay the money through their representatives to the “hawalas”.
Before the journey, traffickers orient the people to be careful in their entire journey since there is a possibility being detained by the police for questions and investigations in case suspected. This suspicion is common especially for people traveling with children. Hence, the victims are told not to start their journey from bus stations; instead they are made to stay somewhere on the road, especially in Kersa woreda or other forests near Jimma town on the way to Addis Ababa and other places. Then the journey starts to Addis Ababa or Nekemte or Gambela and other routes.
When they arrive at Addis Ababa, one individual representing the victims goes to the ‘hawala’ in Addis Ababa to tell him to facilitate the conditions for the transfer of part of the money received from the “hawala’ in Jimma to those in Dire Dawa or Gonder (Humera). The mode of the money transfer continues in the same manner till the victims reach their destination.

3.3 Factors for the Human Trafficking

Ethiopia’s Constitution gives people the freedom to move either within or out of the country (FDRE 1995). Despite this, many citizens of the country, especially the youth, become victims of human trafficking. The survey, the in-depth interviews and key informant interviews reveal that there are many reasons for the spread of human trafficking in the study areas. These include unemployment and limited employment opportunity, high population growth, poverty and poor living conditions, slow growth of income and improvement of living conditions, pressure by family, relatives and friends, brokers’ initiation, stories about the improvement of the life of those who arrived at the place of destination and the long bureaucracy legal travel.

A returnee from Yemen said that:

Land is limited and the family size is increasing. The land has been subdivided repeatedly and become a small plot whose output is not sufficient for the sustenance of family members. There are no other employment opportunities for rural people other than agriculture. Even if available, they are tiresome ones with little gains. The best opportunity is to migrate through any available means.

Another returnee from Saudi Arabia stated that “the youth have no opportunity to get even the small plot of land from their parents until they are married”. Two of the elders interviewed also stated that most of the rural families in their kebeles have small plots of land and the productivity of the land has decreased as it is exhausted from continuous farming for a long period of time. The other factors are high population growth and limited other opportunities. Each year, a large proportion of youth become adults. But the size of land for agricultural production is the same in the past, present and future. In addition, employment opportunities in urban areas and small towns are not in a position to absorb the growing productive work force in the area. Increase in population has created stress and competition over scare resources. Thus, migration, be it legal or illegal, has become a way out of the competition and the limited means of livelihood. Traffickers/brokers’ initiation is very high. They always tell the youths and even the public about easy improvement of life of the person as well as his/her family within a short period of time abroad. The dark side of living within their country of origin is magnified and the beautiful aspects of the place of destination are exaggeratedly. These initiate the family, relatives and the person himself to choose migration as an option to escape the stressful living conditions at their place of origin. Females are easily persuaded by such false propaganda of the brokers/traffickers.
Despite the government’s efforts to create employment opportunities for the youth, unemployment is still one of the major reasons for the spread of illegal migration and human trafficking in their woredas, as stated by the experts of Labor and Social Affairs Offices in the respective woredas. The influence of brokers, families, relatives and friends also fuels illegal migration and creates a conducive environment for human traffickers.
The other issue that forces people to become victims of human trafficking is the long process and high cost migrating abroad legally, particularly for males. Males who have driving license are in demand while the others are not welcome as such in the Middle East. Thus, the only option left is traveling through illegal means. This made them victims of traffickers.
An attempt was made to identify whether the respondents have the intention to migrate in the future and the ways they prefer to do so. Accordingly, 155 (40.6%) of the respondents have replied that they have the intention to migrate illegally through brokers. Hopelessness to bring change/improvement within their area in a short period of time, miserable life conditions prevalent in the area, and information about a few cases of success are the main reasons for their desire to move as understood from the study.
The remaining 227(59.4 %) of the respondents reported that they did not have any interest to migrate abroad and even if they do it, they prefer the legal way. The following table shows their responses.

Table 5. Respondents’ intention to migrate through brokers
Responses Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid: Yes 155 40.6 40.6 40.6
No 227 59.4 59.4 100.0
Total 382 100.0 100.0
SOURCE: Own survey, 2013

3.4 The Cultural Outlook of People towards Human Trafficking

According to the interviews with the elders, key informants and the returnees, people in the studied area have a positive outlook towards migration of their family members abroad, particularly to Arab countries, whatever the form of the travel. Those families who have children abroad are respected and considered as rich because they receive remittances. The mother or the father who is unable to send his son or daughter to an Arab country has no equal social status within the community as those who are able to do so. People also consider entering the Middle East, especially Saudi Arabia, is culturally valuable as it has religious significance. As the elders interviewed briefed me, the historical movement of many people from Jimma to Saudi Arabia was started for religious purposes to learn the Holy Quran and Islamic teachings. However, today many people travel for economic reasons, i.e., to get employment and help their families with remittances. Because of this religious, social and economic significance, people have positive attitudes towards the movement of their family members to Arab countries in general and to Saudi Arabia in particular

3.5 Consequences of Human Trafficking

Human trafficking and illegal migration have various consequences on the families and the victims. One of the returnees in Nada town whose journey to Saudi Arabia was disrupted by the Yemeni police reported: “if one is lucky to reach the destination country, it is possible to get employment opportunity and change his/her life within a short period of time”. Another returnee living in the same town said that “if you successfully arrive in Saudi Arabia, you can pay back the money you borrowed for the brokering service and travel expenses and start to send back a lot of money to your family within three to six months.” He said that his friend safely arrived in Saudi Arabia and was able to send 6000 birr to his family within three months after his journey. Two of the returnees in Yabu and Dedo town of Manna woredas also described their gains from such illegal movement as follows.

I was in Beirut for the last four years. I was a domestic servant for a rich family earning a monthly salary of 120 USD. I was supporting my families with part of my salary. After four years, I have come back to my country, Yabu town, with a sum of 85,000 ETB and opened my boutique shop. I am now running my own business. If you are lucky to reach there and get good employers, you can get life-changing money within three to five years. On the other hand, many people come back with nothing in their pocket after being exploited for a long time. Of course, having a relative who has been there for a long time helped me too a lot. Thanks Allah!

***
I have returned from Saudi Arabia. I was able to reach there through chains of brokers. Then I was employed as a domestic servant. I served there for three years. I was working from dawn to night and the work was backbreaking. However, I have accumulated 63,000ETB and came back to Dedo, Sheik town. I renovated my family’s dilapidated house with part of the money and opened a beauty salon with the rest of the money.

However, most of the people that migrate through brokers and in illegal ways face various types of challenges. The victims’ suffering starts once they cross border towns. Deception and persuasion strategies employed at the place of origin are changed to force, rape and harassment. The problem aggravates as they move far away from the border of Ethiopia to other countries. As they join new brokers in the chain of the relationship for human trafficking at different places, especially abroad, the travelers are requested to pay unjustifiable additional payments. If they resist paying, they are assaulted, robbed and abandoned in the desert. In extreme cases, females are raped and males are killed or thrown into the sea or ocean. Those unable to pay are forced to work for the brokers/traffickers for three to six months or even more without any payment.
The amount of payment requested by the traffickers/brokers for transportation and facilitation of the process varies according to the place of destination. It is small if the place of destination is Sudan and increases if the journey is to the Middle East or Europe. This does not include payment for food and other required things. The amount of money varies from 3000 to 20,000 birr and sometimes goes up to 60,000 birr as understood from the in-depth interviews and case studies. 360 (94.2%) of the survey respondents also revealed that people pay to the brokers/traffickers before they move while 22(5.8%) said that they do not have information related to payment. Regarding the mode of payment, the case study revealed that the money is not directly paid to the brokers/traffickers. Rather, one representative from the travelers collects the money and submits it to the “hawala” (persons that act as money transfer agency) situated at different transit towns and cities. Then the “hawalas” deduct their commission and transfer the rest to the brokers in other places such as Djibouti. The sequential “hawalas” in Djibouti, Sudan, Yemen and other countries also do the same thing until the person reaches the final destination. Traffickers operating within the Ethiopian boundary are citizens of Ethiopia and some of them were victims of human trafficking before.
In the survey the respondents were also asked whether there were domestic investment possibilities instead of paying it to brokers/traffickers to facilitate the journey. Accordingly, 235 (61.5%) claimed that it was possible to invest the money in the country and improve one’s life while 147(38.5%) said the money paid to brokers are too small to invest in the country. In-depth interviews also indicated that the money paid is very small to start business in the country. However, the case of two of the returnees that started their business in Dedo and Yebu mentioned above shows that the money paid to brokers is really adequate to start a small business. Some of the individuals interviewed claimed that the majority of the victims are from rural areas. However, land for agricultural production (crop cultivation, forestry and animal husbandry) is limited. The informants indicated that what is limited is not only the money to start business but also the skills, the experiences required and the market for the goods and services produced. There are very few skills training, saving and credit facilitation organizations in remote rural areas. Even if they exist, they have also less capacity to serve the existing needs and have tight requirements to avail their services especially to unemployed youth.

3.6 Susceptibility to Human Trafficking

Both sex and people from all socioeconomic background can be victims of human trafficking. However, there are some groups more susceptible to trafficking than others. Researches and UN reports revealed that children and women, the poor and the youths are more targeted by traffickers (UNODO 2012; ILO 2006; IOM 2012). For instance, of the 5498 trafficked persons worldwide offered assistance by IOM in 2011 females and males constitute 62%) and 37% respectively (IOM, 2012). The findings of this research also revealed that youth, children and women are the main target of traffickers.

Table 6. People vulnerable to human trafficking, by sex
Response Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid: Male 52 13.6 13.6 13.6
Female 204 53.4 53.4 67.0
Both male and female equally 126 33.0 33.0 100.0
Total 382 100.0 100.0
SOURCE: Own survey, 2013

As table 6 shows, 204(53.4%) said female, 126(33%), said both male and female equally and 52(13.6%) said male were more exposed to trafficking. The main question here is why traffickers focus more on those groups than others. Interview with the victims, the elders and key informants also indicates that females in the studied area have little employment opportunities compared with males and they constitute the largest proportion of the segments of the community affected by unemployment.
Regarding the socio-economic background, the survey result revealed that 269 (70.4%) claimed the poor, 64 (16.8%) stated middle income group, 34 (8.9%) said all income groups, 10 (2.6 %) said upper income groups and 5 (1.3%) said both poor and middle income groups were vulnerable, as depicted in table 7. In-depth interviews also shows the same thing. These indicate that women, children, the youth and the poor are the main targets of traffickers. In-depth interviews with the experts indicated women, children, youths and the poor are easy to be persuaded. The majority of these groups are unemployed and poverty stricken. In addition, for their lower orientation and education, particularly women do not expose the issue to legal bodies. Once selected, they are easily driven by the brokers/traffickers to anywhere. In other words, the brokers/traffickers use the vulnerability of the groups to target them.

Table 7. People vulnerable to human trafficking, by socio-economic status
Response Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid: Poor 269 70.4 70.4 70.4
Middle income groups 64 16.8 16.8 87.2
Upper income groups 10 2.6 2.6 89.8
All income groups 34 8.9 8.9 98.7
Poor and middle class 5 1.3 1.3 100.0
Total 382 100.0 100.0
SOURCE: Own survey, 2013

3.7 Community Awareness of the Criminality of Human Trafficking and Measures Taken by Government

Human trafficking is a crime against humanity. It is one of the crimes that the international community pays attention to. According to the Ethiopian laws, human trafficking is a crime and forbidden.

Table 8. Respondents’ awareness of the criminality of human trafficking
Response Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid: Yes 352 92.1 92.1 92.1
No 30 7.9 7.9 100.0
Total 382 100.0 100.0
SOURCE: Own survey, 2013

As table 8 shows, 352 (92.1) of the respondents said that they knew the criminality of human trafficking while 30 (7.9%) said that they did not know its criminality.
The government has started some sort of operation at central level and imprisoned some individuals proven to be involved in human trafficking and publicized it in the media in 2012/13 after horrific news about people trafficked from Ethiopia. According to the interview with experts in the Labor and Social Affairs Offices, a technical committee was established at the grassroots level to follow up and control human trafficking. However, no specific policy has been adopted to deal with the growing problem yet.

Table 9. Respondents’ awareness of measures taken by government regarding human trafficking
Response Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid: Yes 239 62.6 62.6 62.6
No 143 37.4 37.4 100.0
Total 382 100.0 100.0
SOURCE: Own survey, 2013

Survey results showed that 239 (62.6%) of respondents said that measures have been taken while 143 (37.4%) said that there was no measure taken to alleviate the problem of human trafficking. In-depth interviews made with experts and officials from Labor and Social Affairs Offices and Women’s and Children’s Affairs Offices of respected woredas indicated that they are using one to five change army grouping strategy introduced by the government to curb the problem of human trafficking. The police also sometimes inspect travelers using public transport from Jimma to either Nekemte or Addis Ababa and detain suspected individuals for further investigation, but this is not done regularly. However, the brokers/ traffickers have designed a system to escape from such kind of sudden police detention and investigation. According the returnees, the system involves making the people stay in forests outside of Jimma town, booking for them bus tickets and picking them up from there.

4. Conclusions and Recommendations

4.1 Conclusions

From the study it is concluded that human trafficking is widely practiced in the study area and people are aware of the fact that many people have become victims. It remains a major social problem of the study area as many people have also the intention to move in this way despite its negative consequences and government’s attempts to stop it.
Females are the major targets and are more vulnerable to the problem than anybody else. The majority of the people are moved by brokers crossing long deserts on foot via Humera to Sudan, from Dire Dawa to Djibouti and then to Yemen and Saudi Arabia, as well as to other Arab countries.
Unemployment, limited employment opportunity, high population growth and associated land shortage, poverty/poor living conditions, hopelessness, family’s, relatives’ and friends’ influence, brokers’ initiation, rumors about the success stories of those arriving at the place of destination, long process and high cost required to migrate abroad legally and the bureaucracy of legal travel and restrictions from destination countries are the major factors identified that force many people, especially youths, to become victims of human trafficking.

4.2 Recommendations

Poverty, unemployment, population growth and decrease in size of farm plots, and lack of confidence to work and improve their socio-economic status are the major reasons for many people to become victims of human trafficking. Therefore, it is important to focus on provision of marketable skills training on off-farm activities and facilitating conditions so that they can get access to credit facilities.
The police have been taking some measures to stop human trafficking although it lacks consistency and sustainability. For instance, sometimes they inspect people who are ready to travel from Jimma bus station to either Nekemte or Addis Ababa and detain the traveling females mostly though not regularly. Thus, regular follow up is required.

According to the Ethiopian laws, human trafficking is a crime and forbidden. Violating the law can result in either imprisonment or fine. However, there is no specific policy adopted to deal with the growing problem of human trafficking. Therefore, it is important to design strategies to investigate and detect traffickers/brokers in order to mitigate human trafficking.

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